Conclusion: Four Months of Revolution – Results and Prospects
The working class emerged from the July Days divided and confused. The divisions reflected the uneven pace of political radicalisation between March and July. For although a majority of Petrograd’s industrial workers had by now embraced soviet power, the extent of support for this demand varied greatly among the different strata. The confusion stemmed from the blow the July Days had dealt to the workers’ perspective of the revolution. The situation seemed to call for a reorientation of revolutionary strategy, but this entailed consequences that the workers were reluctant to accept.
Most heavily involved in the radicalisation were the skilled urban workers, the most politically aware and active segment of the working class. Here virtual unanimity reigned on the urgent need to break off the alliance with census society. The exceptions were the ’worker aristocracy’, printers, skilled workers in some of the state factories, small property-owning workers of the Nevskii District, who were also generally of one mind, but in support of the coalition. Very little had been seen or heard of these workers since April, and their absence on 18 June dealt an unexpected blow to the moderate socialists. But their reaction to the July demonstrations was extremely hostile. On the other hand, a shift to the left had already begun among the unskilled workers, still largely tied to their peasant origins and most of whom had been awakened to political life for the first time in February. But only a minority participated in the July Days, and the ensuing bloodshed and repressions put a temporary halt to the growth of Bolshevik influence here.
The seeds of the split between the main mass of skilled workers and the moderate socialists had, in fact, been there from the start. The former’s support for the alliance with census society had been entirely conditional, the product of the all-national character of February; while the latter’s advocacy of the alliance was, in practice at least, virtually unconditional, in accord with the view that the democratic revolution could not survive without the bourgeoisie and that a socialist revolution in Russian conditions was even more out of the question. The small group of ’irreconcilables’, who even in February refused to support the ’bourgeois government’, argued on the basis of the history of census society’s (and particularly the industrialists’) hostility to the revolutionary movement and to labour’s specific aspirations. While this sharply antagonistic view of Russian society had become an integral part of the political culture of the entire stratum of workers, most in February felt that the stakes were too high not to give the bourgeoisie’s newly professed devotion to the revolution a chance.
Viewed against this background, the subsequent radicalisation can be accounted for quite adequately without resort to such factors as anomie, anarchistic instincts run amok with the breakdown of legitimate authority or chiliastic moods and demagogic manipulation. These can explain neither the initial support for the alliance with census society nor the vastly disproportionate radicalisation among the skilled workers. Just as the early support for dual power was based upon an assessment of the situation in February and the risks involved in various courses of action, so too the shift to soviet power was grounded in experiences of the subsequent months that called for modification of this assessment. Even the ’irreconcilables’ recognised that the mass of workers needed contemporary proof that the bourgeoisie could not be entrusted to administer the revolution, no matter how closely ’controlled’.
The contribution of Bolshevik agitation was first and foremost to make certain that the actual policies of the government and of census society were known to the workers. In this respect, the party’s role in the first four months of the revolution was rather limited. The main issues and demands and organisational forms of the period did not have to be hatched in the Bolshevik Central Committee or at party conferences but arose directly out of the workers’ own experience. Furthermore, all the mass actions of these months – the February, April and July Days – were initiated from below, catching the leadership off guard. It is true that this changed significantly after July, when the party’s leadership role indeed became indispensable for the further development of the revolution. But it was the creativity, the independence and the initiative of the masses, and particularly of the skilled workers, the true vanguard of the working class and of the revolution, that left their mark on this first period.
The experiences that radicalised these workers were essentially political in nature (including the conflict over economic regulation). These were developments that unfolded in the public arena without yet having a direct impact on most factories. This in part explains their much more limited effect on the unskilled workers, who required something more personal and tangible to convince them of the need to re-evaluate their support for the coalition. The unskilled workers were also less integrated into the labour movement and generally lacked a firm commitment to the collective fate of the class and to its long-term aspirations. Soviet power was an unknown and risky business, and only immediate material necessity could move most of them to embrace it. But the more openly aggressive policies of the government and of capital towards the workers and the accelerated tempo of economic decline would soon provide this. After the initial negative reaction to the July Days had worn off, a swift and massive shift of unskilled workers to the Bolsheviks took place (in the capital as well as in Moscow and the provinces).
For the ’worker aristocracy’, however, it was mostly a lack of faith in soviet power as a viable alternative that kept them attached to the coalition. For when it came down to it, they were not in basic disagreement with the majority of skilled workers in their evaluation of the politics of census society and of the government. But they found unacceptable the practical conclusions drawn by their radical counterparts. On the one hand, they could not envision the mass of workers, upon whom they tended to look condescendingly, as a governing class. On the other hand, and related to this, were their cultural and/or material ties to liberal society that exercised a restraining influence. The result was their silence in 1917. They too would eventually (though not very decisively) break with the coalition, but only when events appeared to force an immediate choice between that and counterrevolution.
For the workers who had participated in them, the July Days were a watershed that created a new and bewildering situation. A historian, if so inclined, could trace the roots of the civil war back to 1914, 1905 or even the Emancipation and beyond. But for these workers, it was the July Days that placed civil war on the agenda in all its terrifying concreteness.
Until now, they had been thinking almost exclusively in terms of revolutionary democracy and census society, and their perspective of the revolution had been one of an essentially peaceful development. The real significance of the July Days was to place in doubt the very validity of the concept of revolutionary democracy and to push to the fore a new one – proletarian dictatorship.
The workers, as we have seen, did not welcome this, and even their most radical elements reacted initially by clinging desperately to the old conception of the revolution. Lenin’s post-July slogan, ’dictatorship of the proletariat and poorest peasantry’, and its implications for action were not accepted wholeheartedly by most workers. Even into the autumn, when the extreme isolation of the Petrograd workers had been overcome through the swing of the provincial workers’ and soldiers’ soviets to the Bolsheviks, the growing radicalisation of the exhausted and embittered army, and, to some extent, by the outbreak of the peasant war, the lessons of July continued to haunt the workers and hold them back from taking the political initiative, as they had done repeatedly in the earlier phase of the revolution. Despite their growing alarm, they now waited for their leaders.
In the factories, parallel to these political developments and initially equally unrecognised by the workers, the social content of the revolution had been undergoing a transformation. Despite their insistence (not abandoned until after October) that workers’ control did not mean socialism, this new demand of the revolution, by the very logic of events, was fast moving the workers beyond the bourgeois-democratic stage. Here, on the economic plane, the worker rank-and-file did not cede the initiative but continued to push their often reluctant leaders towards deeper and deeper involvement in the actual running of the factories.
This reversal of the relationship between masses and leaders in the political sphere was not a sign of indifference or quiescence. It was rather the result of the workers’ realisation that the nature of the revolution had changed and with it the practical tasks that faced them. Before July, it had been a question of peacefully exerting pressure on the moderate leaders of the Soviet. After July, it could only be a question of armed struggle, and this required planning, organisation and leadership to have any chance of success.
But at least to an equal extent, the change stemmed from the workers’ reluctance to accept the lessons of July. The soldiers wanted peace and the peasants land, but could they be counted upon to support a working-class initiative for soviet power directed against census society and, if it came to that, against the moderate socialists? Could the workers really manage the economy and the state against the opposition of all educated society? Even if the entire army and peasantry supported soviet power, experience had shown that these were scarcely active forces and for the most part they viewed the revolution almost exclusively in simplified terms of peace and land.
The July Days, thus, raised concretely before the workers the issue of proletarian dictatorship, not as a vision of a socialist paradise just around the comer, but as a practical, if extremely perilous, alternative to the defeat of the revolution. In this way, if February was very much a revolution of unbounded hopes, October would be one more of desperation (though, to be sure, not without its own indispensable measure of hope and enthusiasm), in the sense of the phrase that was heard with increasing frequency after July – that it is better to die standing than to live on one’s knees.
Still, only a minority of workers, most notably from among the skilled metalworkers, who formed the backbone of the Bolshevik organisation in Petrograd, were able to contemplate this new perspective without flinching. It was to them that the initiative would fall in October. Once the affair was underway, the rest would rally. But this is the subject matter of another study to follow.
David Mandel
Selected Bibliography
I Archives
Leningradskii gosudarstvennyi arkhiv Oktyabr’skoi revolyutsii i sotsialisticheskogo stroitel’stva (LGAORSS)
fond 171, opis’ 1, delo I (Kolpino District Soviet protocols)
1000/73/12 (Petrograd Soviet, Soldiers’ Section protocols, 12 Mar 1917)
1000/73/16 (Petrograd Soviet, Workers’ Section protocols, 20 Mar 1917)
4591/1/1 (general factory assemblies and conferences of the Petrograd Metalworkers’ Union, protocols, Mar-Dec 1917)
4601/1/10 (Arsenal Factory committee protocols, 7 Mar-30 Dec 1917)
4602/7/7 (Patronnyi Factory general assembly protocols, 3 Mar-11 Nov 1917)
7384/7/21 (Mandate Committee of EC of Petrograd Soviet)
7384/9/293 (Petrograd Soviet, factory resolutions on return to work, 6-16 Mar 1917)
9391/1/11 (Admiralty Shipyard general assembly protocols, 12 Apr 1917-9 Dec 1918)
Gosudarstvennyi istoricheskii arkhiv leningradskoi oblasti (GIALO)
416125/5 (Baltic Shipyard administration – conciliation chamber)
416/5/30 (Baltic Shipyard administration – conciliation chamber protocols, 1917)
II Published Documents and Statistics
Chugaev, D. A. ed. Rabochii klass Sovetskoi Rossii v pervyi god diktatury proktariata (M., 1967)
Doneseniya komissarov Petrogradskogo Voenno-revolyutsionnogo komiteta, 2 vols (M., 1957)
Ekonomicheskoe polozhenie Rossii nakanune Velikoi Oktyabr’skoi sotsialisticheskoi revolyutsii 3 vols (M.-L., 1957) (Ek. Pol.)
’Fevral’skaya revolyutsiya i Okhrannoe otdelenie’, Byloe, nos 7-8 (1918)
Fleer, M. G. ed. Rabochee dvizhenie v gody voiny (M., 1925)
Grave, B. B. ed. Burzhuaziya nakanune Fevral’skoi revolyutsii (M.-L., 1927)
Lenin, V. I., Polnoe sobranie sochinenie 5th edn (M., 1958-67)
Materialy po statistike Petrograda, vypusk I (1920)
Materialy po statistike truda, vypusk V
Materialy po statistike truda severnoi oblasti vypusk I (1918)
Mikhoilov, M., ’Rabochie zavoda Baranovskogo v bor’be za Oktyabr’, Krasnaya letopis, no. 50-1 (1932)
Oktyabr’skaya revolyutsiya I fabzavkomy, 2 vols (M., 1927-8) (FZX)
Pervaya Petrogradskaya obshchegorodskaya konferentsiya RSDRP(b) v aprele 1917g. (M., 1925)
Pervyi legal’nyi Péterburgskii komitet RSDRP(b) v 1917 g. (M.-L., 1927) (Peka)
Popov, A. L. ed. Oktyabr’skii perevorot (Petrograd, 1919)
Putilovtsy v trekh revolyutsiyakh (L., 1933)
Rabochii kontrol’i natsionalizatsiya promyshlennykh predpriyatii Petrograda v 1917-1919 gg., vol. I (L., 1949) (Rab. Kon.)
Raionnye sovety Petrograda v 1917 g., 3 vols (M.-L., 1966-8)
Velikaya Oktyabr’skaya sotsialisticheskaya revolyutsiya. Dokumenty i Materialy
Revolyutsionnoe dvizhenie v Rossii posle sverzheniya samoderzhaviya (M., 1957) (Dok. Feb.)
Revolyutsionnoe dvizhenie v Rossii v aprele 1917 g. (M., 1958) (Dok. Apr.)
Revolyutsionnoe dvizhenie v Rossii v mae-iyune 1917 g. (M., 1959) (Dok. May)
Revolyutsionnoe dvizhenie v Rossii v iyule 1917g. (M., 1959) (Dok. July)
Revolyutsionnoe dvizhenie v Rossii v avguste 1917 g. (M., 1947) (Dok. Aug.)
Nakanune Oktyabr’skogo vooruzhennogo vosstaniya, 1-24 oktyabrya 1917g. (M., 1962) (Dok. Okt.)
Oktyabr’skoe vooruzhennoe vosstanie v Petrograde (M., 1957) (Dok. Okt.)
Vserossiiskaya promyshlennaya I professionel’naya perepis’ 1918 g. Trudy Ts SU vol. XXVI, vypusk I and 2 (M., 1926)
Vtoraya i tret’ya obshchegorodskie konferentsii bol’shevikov v iyule i sentyabre 1917g. (M.-L., 1927) (Vtoraya)
III Worker’s Memoirs
Alliluev, S., ’V dni Oktyabrya na Elektricheskoi stantsii imeni 1886’, Krasnaya letopis, no. 6 (1923)
Arbuzova, A., ’Oktyabr’ 1917 na Trubochnom zavode’, Krasnaya letopis’, no. 6 (1923)
Buiko, A., Put’ rabochego (M., 1934)
Buntilov, A., Za pechatnym stolom (M., 1923)
Buzinov, A., Za Nevskoi zastavoi (M.-L., 1930)
Ivanov, B., Zapiski proshlogo (M., 1919)
Kudelli, P. F., ed., Leningradskie rabochie v borbe’ za vlast’ sovetov v 1917g. (L., 1924)
Metelev, A., ’Iul’skoe vosstanie v Potrograde’, Prolotorskaya revolyulsiya, no. 6 (1922)
Naumov, I. K., Zapiski vyborzhtsa (L., 1933)
’Petrogradskie rabochie ob iyul’skikh dnyakh’, Krasnaya letopis, no. 9 (1924)
Samoilov, F. N., Vospominaniya ob ivanovo-voznesenskom rabochem dvizhenii part II (M., 1924)
Shapovalov, A. S., V bor’be za sotsialism (M., 1934)
Shlyapnikov, A. S., Kanun semnadtsatogo goda (M.-Petrograd, 1923)
Shotman, A., Kak iz iskry vozgorelos’ plamya (L., 1935)
Skorinko, I., ’Vospominaniya rabochego ob Oktyabre 1917 g.’, Krasnaya letopis’, no. 6 (1923)
Tikhanov, A., ’Rabochie pechatniki v Petrograde, 1907-19141, in Materialy po istorii professional’nogo dvizheniya v Rossii sbornik III (M., 1925)
V boyakh za Oktiyabr’ (L., 1932)
Vogne revolyutsionnykh boev, 2 vols (M., 1967 and 1971)
Vyborgskaya storona (L., 1957)
Zalezhskii, V. N., ’Peryyi legal’nyi Peka, Proletarskaya revolyutsiya, no. 13 (1923)
IV Memoirs of Non-workers
Bulkin, F. A., Na zare profdvizheniya (L., 1924)
Dingel’shtedt, F., ’Vesna proletarskoi revolyutsii’, Krasnaya letopis, no. 1 (12) (1925)
Latsis, M. I., ’Iyul’skie dni v Petrograde’, Proletarskaya revolyutsiya, no. 5 (1923)
Leont’ev. L., ’V ryadakh “Mezhraionki”’, Krasnaya letopis, no. 11 (1924)
Maevskii, E., Kanun revolyutsii (Petrograd, 1918)
Malakhovskii, V., Iz istorii krasnoi gvardii (L., 1925)
Mstislavskii, S., Sem’ dnei (Berlin-Petersburg-M., 1922)
Rafes, M.,’Moi vospominaniya’, Byloe, no. 19 (1922)
Sukhanov, N., Zapiski o revotyutsii, 7 vols (Berlin-Peterburg-M., 1919-23)
Tsvetkov-Prosveshchenskii, A. K., Mezhdu dvumya revolyutsyamy (M.L., 1933)
Voitinskii, V. S., Gody pobed i porazhenii, 2 vols (Berlin, 1923)
V Contemporary Press and Periodicals
Byuleten’ obshchestva fabrikantov i zavodchikov Moskovskogo promyshlennogo raiona. (Moscow area industrialists’ bulletin)
Delo naroda (SR)
Derevoobdelocknik (Petersburg Union of Woodworkers)
Iskra (Menshevik-Internationalist)
Izvestiya (Organ of Petrograd Soviet EC and later also of TsIK)
Metallist (Petrograd Union of Metalworkers)
Novaya zhizn’ (Menshevik-Internationalist, Gorky’s paper)
Pravda (Bolshevik)
Rabochaya gazeta (Menshevik-Defencist)
Rabotnitsa (Bolshevik, women workers’ bi-monthly)
Rech’ (Kadet)
Torgovo-promyshlennaya gazeta (commerce and industry)
Znamya truda (Left SR)
VI Secondary Sources: Histories of Factories, Unions, Industries, etc.
Bastiony revolyutsii sbornik materialov po istorii leningradskikh zavodov v 1917g. (L., 1957)
Bazilevich, K., Professional’noe dvizhenie rabotnikov svyazi (M., 1927)
Borisov, G. and Vasil’ev, S., Stankostroiteli imeni Sverdlova (L., 1962)
Bortyk, M., ’Na Trubochnom zavode’ in Professional’noe dvizhenie v Petrograde v 1917g. (L., 1928)
Frantishev, I. M., Leningradskie krasnostroiteli (L., 1962)
Ganichev, L. S., Na Aptekarskom ostrove (L., 1967)
Grebach, V. V., Kuznedsov, K. A., et al., Rabochie baltiitsy v trekh revolyutsiyakh (L., 1959).
Istoriya Leningradskogo ordena Lenina i ordena krasnogo znameni obuvnoi fabriki im. ya. kalinina (L., 1968)
Istoriya Leningradskogo soyuza rabochikh poligraficheskogo proizvodstva (L., 1925)
Krasnyi Treugol’nik na putyakh Oktybrya (L., 1927)
Kabo, E. A., Ocherki rabochego byta (M., 1928)
Kukushkin, V., Sestroretskaya dinastiya (L., 1959)
Mitel’man, M., Glebov, B. and Ul’yanskii, A., Istoriya Putilovskogo zavoda, 3rd edn (L., 1961)
Notman, K. V., ’Trubochnyi zavod na Oktyabr’skikh putyakh’, Krasnaya letopis’, nos 50-1 (1932)
Ocherk istorii Leningradskogo soyuza rabochikh derevoobdelochnikov za 1917-18 gg. (L., 1927)
Perazich, V., Tekstili Leningrada v 1917 g. (L., 1927)
Rozanov, M., Obukhovtsy (L., 1938)
Rozenfel’d, Ya. S. and Klimenko, K. I., Istoriya mashinostroeniya SSSR (M., 1961)
Sergeev, N. S., Metallisty – Istoriya Leningradskogo metallicheskogo zavoda imeni XXII s"ezda KPSS (L., 1967)
Shatilova, T., ’Professional’nye soyuzy i Oktyabr’ ’, Krasnaya letopis, no. 2 (1927)
Shatilova, T., Ocherki istorii leningradskogo soyuza khimikov v 1907-1918 gg. (L., 1927)
Smirnov, A., Poslednie dni Utemanov – 1917 na fabrike ’Skorokhod’ (M.-L., 1925)
Suknovalov, A. E. and Fomenkov, I. N., Fabrika ‘Krasnoe znamya’ (L., 1968)
Tanyaev, A., Ocherki po istorii zheleznodorozhnikov v revolyutsii 1917-go goda (M.-L., 1925)
Temkin, Ya., U nas na Galernom ostrove (L., 1958)
Tomkevich, I. G., ’Znamya Oktybrya’ – ocherki istorii zavoda (L., 1972)
Tsybul’skii, V. A., ’Rabochie Sestroretskogo zavoda v 1917 g.’, Istoriya SSR, no. 7 (1959)
Vasil’eva, M. V., Rabochie fabriki Svetoch v trekh revolyutsiyakh (L., 1968)
VII Secondary Sources – General
Avrich, P., The Russian Anarchists (London: Thames and Hudson, 1973)
Avrich, P., ’The Bolshevik Revolution and Workers’ Control in Russian Industry’, Slavic Review, vol. XXII, no. 1 (1973)
Balabanov, M. S., Ot 1905 k 1917 g. (M.-L., 1927)
Balabanov, M. S., Rabochee dvizhenie v Rossii v gody pod"ema 1912-14 gg. (L., 1927)
Braverman, H., Labor and Monopoly Capital (New York: Monthly Review Press, 1974)
Burdzhalov, E. N., Vtoraya russkaya revolyutsiya (M., 1967)
Chamberlin, W. H., History of the Russian Revolution (New York: Universal Library, 1965)
Devlin, R., ’Petrograd Workers and Workers’ Factory Committees in 1917’ (PhD dissertation, SUNY Binghamton, 1976)
Ferro, M., La Révolution de 1917 (Paris: Aubier, 1967)
Gaponenko, L. S., ’Rabochii klass Rossii na kanune velikogo Oktyabrya’, Istoricheskie zapiski no. 73 (M., 1963)
Golovanova, L. V., ’Raionnye komitety RSDRP (b) Petrograda v 1917 g.’ (Candidate’s dissertation, Leningrad State University, 1974)
Haimson, L. H., ed., The Mensheviks (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1975)
Haimson, L. H., Russian Society and Politics on the Eve of the First World War, vol. I (New York: W. W. Norton, forthcoming)
Hasegawa, T., The February Revolution: Petrograd, 1917 (Seattle, 1980)
Hobsbawm, E. J., ’Peasants and Politics’, Journal of Peasant Studies, vol. I (1973)
Istoriya rabochikh Leningrada, vol. I (L., 1972)
Johnson, C., Revolutionary Change (Boston: Little Brown, 1966)
Keep, J., The Russian Revolution – A Study in Mass Mobilization (New York: W. W. Norton, 1976)
Kleinbort, L. M., Ocherki rabochei Intelligentsii (Petrograd, 1923)
Kochan, L., Russia in Revolution (London: Paladin, 1966)
Koenker, D., Moscow Workers and the 1917 Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1981)
Kruze, E. E., Petrogradskii rabochie v 1912-14 gg. (M.-L., 1961)
Leiberov, I. P., ’O revolyutsionnykh vystupleniyakh petrogradskikh rabochikh v gody pervoi mirovoi voiny i Fevral’skoi revolyutsii’, Voprosy istorii, no. 2 (1964)
Levin, I. D., ’Rabochie kluby v Petrograde (1907-14)’ in Materialy po istorii professional’nogo dvizheniya v Rossi, sbornik III (M., 1925)
Mandel, P., ’The Intelligentsia and the Working Class in 1917’, Critique, no. 14 (1981)
Melgunov, S. P., The Bolshevik Seizure of Power (Santa Barbara: ABCCAO, 1972)
Pearson, R., The Russian Moderates and the Crisis of Tsarism (London and Basingstoke: Macmillan, 1977)
Rabinowitch, A., Prelude to Revolution – The Petrograd Bolsheviks and the July 1917 Uprising (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1968)
Rashin, A. G., Formirovanie rabochego klassa Rossi (M., 1958)
Rosenburg, W. G., The Liberals in the Russian Revolution (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1974)
Rossiiskii proletariat: Oblik, borba, gegemoniya (M., 1970)
Scott, R. H., ’The Russian Peasantry in the First and Second Dumas’, mimeographed seminar paper (Russian Institute, Columbia University, 1973)
T. Shanin, ed., Peasants and Peasant Society (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1971)
Shelavin, K., Ocherki russkoi revolyutsii 1917 goda, fevral’-iyul’, part I (Petrograd, 1923)
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Index
Admiralty Shipbuilding Factory
Admiralty (sub) District
Aerowheel Factory
Afanas’ev, D.
Aivaz Machine-construction Factory
Aleksandr-NevskayaTextile Mill
Aleksandr-Nevskii (sub) District
Aleksandrovskii Locomotive Factory
Anarchism
Anarchists
Anikst, A.
Antipov, N. K.
Antonov, A.
April crisis
Arsenal Factory
Artur Koppel Wagon-construction Factory
Avilov, N. P.
Babytsyn, A. A.
bakers
Balabanov, M.
Baltic Shipbuilding Factory
Baltic Wagon-construction Factory
Baranovskii Machine-construction and Pipe Factory
Bazarov, V.
Benois Machine-construction Factory
Borshaya Sampsion’evskaya
Manufaktura
Bolshevikparty
in April crisis
Central Committee of
and civil war
and coalition
and dual power
and eight-hour day
in February Revolution
First Petrograd Conference of
in July Days
after July
and June demonstration
and liberal bourgeoisie
Petersburg Committee of
Second Petrograd Conference of
social composition of
and Soviet majority
in State Duma
support for
view of unskilled workers
and war
and War-Industry Committees
and workers’ control
in Workers’ Section of Soviet
bourgeoisie see census society
Brenner Machine-construction Factory
Buiko, A.
Bulkin F.
Burdzhalov, E. N.
Buzinov, A.
Cable Factory
census society
in April crisis
in central city districts
and coalition
definition of
and economic regulation
in February Revolution
hostility to soviet of
after July Days
and Tsarist state
and war
workers’ attitudes towards; before February; in February-April; after April Days; after July Days,
see also press, non-socialist
Central Bureau of Trade Unions
Central Industrial Region
chemical industry
chemical workers
literacy among
recently from village
wages of
women
chernorabochie, see unskilled workers
Chernov, V.
Chkheidze, N. C.
civil war
workers’ fear of
Conference of Factories of the Artillery Authority
Congress of Soviets of W and SD
‘conscious workers’
printers as
and war
and workers recently from village
Constituent Assembly
Counterrevolution
threat of: as factor in creation of dual
power as cause of shift to soviet power
culture
role of in formation of attitudes
Dan, F.
death penalty
defencism (before February)
Delo naroda
Den’
Dinamo Electrotechnical Factory
districts of Petrograd
Bolshevik support in soviets of
duma elections in
social profile of
see also, individual districts
dual power
defined
workers’ attitudes towards
Dunasev (worker)
Durnovo incident
economic dislocation
economic regulation
entrepreneurs’ opposition to
Soviet plan for
workers’ demand for
Efimov (workers)
Efron, B. A.
eight-hour day
and entrepreneurs
before
in February Revolution
Power Station
Electric Lighting Company
Electrotechnical industry
Emel’yanov (worker)
employees (sluzhashchie)
entrepreneurs
accused of sabotage
and economic regulation
and eight-hour day
fear of social revolution of
and flight of capital
on prerogatives of management
and workers’ control
see also, Petrograd Society of Factory
and Mill Owners
Erikson Telephone Factory
Factories
average concentration in
closure of
declining production in
democratisation of
régime in: under Tsarism
small: paternalistic régime in
factory committees
Central Soviet of
and cooperation with management
creation of
First Petrograd Conference of
on soviet power
on workers’ control
and ‘internal order’
political role of
search for materials and fuel
Second Petrograd Conference of
and takeovers
see also, workers’ control
February Revolution
rise in productivity following
workers’ conception of
in political sphere
in social sphere
workers’ state of mind in
Fedorov, O. F.
First City District
see also. Liteinyi and Aleksandr-Nevskii Districts
First Power Station
food-processing industry
workers in
literacy among
wages of
Franko-Russkii Shipbuilding Factory
Galeski, B.
Gessen, S. M.
Golovanova, L. V.
Gordienko
Gorky, Maksim
Government Paper Printing Plant
Groman
Guchkov, A. I.
Gvozdev, K. A.
industrial workers
definition of
of Petrograd: social characteristics of
types of political culture among
intelligentsia
in February Revolution
after July Days
after 1905
and worker-intelligentsia
on Vasilevskii ostrov
Iskra
Ivanov, B.
Ivanovo-Voznesensk
Izhorskii Arms and Machine-construction Factory,
Izvestya
blames Bolsheviks for bloodshed
on hidden lockouts
on 18 June
on need for coalition
on press campaign against workers
James Beck Textile Mill
July Days
aftermath of
background to
June 18 demonstration
absence of defencist workers from
compared to May Day
Putilov workers in
June offensive
juvenile workers, 46.48
Kabo, E. A
Kadet (Constitutional Democratic) party
anti-soviet mood of
in April Days
in district duma elections
and June demonstration
leaves coalition
and nationalities
war aims of
and workers
Kamenev, L. B.
Kazan’ District
Kebke Canvas Factory
Kenig Sugar Refinery
Kenig Thread Mill
Kerenskii, A. F.
Kersten Knitwear Mill
Kleinbort, L. M
Kollontai, A.
Kolomna District
Kolpino
Konovalov
Korotkov (worker)
KozhevnikovskayaTextile Mill
Kronstadt
Krupakaya
Kudelli, P. F.
Kutler, N. N.
Kuz’min (worker)
Laferme Tobacco Factory
Lande, L.
Langezipen Machine-construction Factory
Latais, M. I.
leadership
role of
after July
among unskilled,
of Vyborg District
leather industry
leatherworkers
on dual power
literacy among
wages of
women
Lebedev Aircraft Factory
Left SRs (Social Revolutionaries)
Leiberov, I. P.
Lenin, V. I.
accused of treason
in April crisis
April Theses of
compares spring demonstrations,
post-July tactics of
Leont’ev, L.
Lessner Machine-construction Factories,
see also, New Lessner
Levin, V. M.
liberalism
workers’ rejection of
Liberty Loan
Liebknecht, K.
Liteinyi (sub) District
literacy among workers
lockouts
Lunacharskii, A. V
Lvov, G. E.
machine construction
in Vyborg District
workers: literacy among; participation in strikes of; skills of; support for Soviet; power among; ties to land among
Maevski, V.
Malakhovskii, V.
Martov, L.
Maxwell Textile Mill
Menshevik (defencists)
attitude to bourgeoisie of
on coalition
on economic regulation
after July Days
on workers’ economic demands
workers’ support for
see, moderate socialists, Rabochaya gazeta
Menshevik-Internationalists
before February
on War-Industry Committees
on State Duma
after February
on dual power and coalition
and Liberty Loan
on Soviet power
workers’ support for
metal industry
Metallicheski Factory
Metallist
Metalworkers
literacy among
participation in strikes of
skilled
social origins of
and Soviet power
unskilled
wages of
wartime workers among
women
see also, machine construction ordnance production
Metal workers’ Union
Metelev, A.
Mezhraionka (Interdistrict Committee)
Military-Medical Preparations Factory
Mills, C. Wright
Milyukov, P. N.
as Foreign Minister
resigns
Ministry of Trade and Industry
moderate socialists
and alliance with liberals
blame Bolsheviks for July bloodshed
in duma elections
oppose Soviet power
workers’ attitudes towards: up to July
after July
see also Izvestiya, Mensheviks
SRs, TsIK
Moscow
Soviet, workers
Moscow District
Mstislavskii, S.
Narva District
see also Petergot District
Naumov, I. K.
Needle trades
workers in
Needle workers’ Union
Nekrasov, N. V.
Nevka (Cotton Thread) Mill
Nevskaya, Bumagopryadil’nya (Cotton) Mill
Nevskaya Nitochnaya (Thread) Mill
Nevskii (-Obukhovskii) District
modal composition of
SR influence in
Soviet
workers: after
and June
and July Days
after October
Sensitivity to economic issues of
Nevskii Ship and Machine-construction Factory
Nevskii Shoe Factory
New Admiralty Shipbuilding Factory
New Lessner Machine-construction Factory
New Parviainen Machine-construction Factory
Nobel machine-construction Factory
nobility, see census society
Novaya Bumagoprydil’nya (Cotton) Mill
Novaya derevnya
Novaya zhizn’n
Novoe vremya
Obukhovskii Steel Mill
October Revolution
Okhta District
Okhta Powder Factory
Okhtenskaya Bumagoprydil’nya (Cotton) Mill
Old Parviainen Foundry and Mechanical Factory
opticheskii (Optical) Factory
Optico-machine-construction Factory
ordnance production
Orudiinyi Factory
Osipov (worker)
Osokin (Menshavik-Internationalist)
Otto Kirkhner Printing House
and Bindery
Out Machine-construction Factory
Pal’chinskii P. I.
Paléologue, M.
paperworkers
Paramanov Leather Factory
Patronnyi Factory
peasants
see also, revolutionary democracy
Pechatkin Paper Mill
Pachatnyi Dvor
Perazich, V.
Petergof District
see also, Narva District
Petichev Cable Factory
Petrograd District
Petrograd Pipe Factory
see Trubochnyi Factory
Petrograd Society of Factory and Mill
Owners (PSFMO)
and February wage demands
Convention of June
March 10 Agreement
and Putilov dispute
workers reject aid from
Petrograd Soviet of W and SD
in April crisis
and coalition
creation of
and dual power
and economic regulation
ends February strike
Executive Committee of
and coalition
and dual power
and Durnovo incident
on economic demands
and economic regulation
and Liberty Loan
on Red Guards
and June Offensive
and Liberty Loan
on war
workers’ attitudes towards
Workers’ Section of
votes Soviet power
Petrov (worker)
Phoenix Machine-construction Factory,
Plekhanov, O. V.
political culture
in working class: types of
Popov, A. L.
Porokhovskii District
post and telegraph employees
Potresov, B. I.
Pravda, press
non-socialist: anti-Bolshevik campaign of
attacks on Soviets of,
campaign against worker
egotism’ of
for coalition
on ’Sestroretak Republic’
on war
printers
on dual power
in July Days
literacy among
nature of work and political culture
participation in strike
support for Mensheviks
ties to land among
wages
women
see also, ’worker aristocracy’
printing industry
prishlye, see workers recently from village
Promet Pipe Factory
propertied classes, see census Society
property-owning among workers
Provisional Government
first: creation of
workers’ attitudes towards
first coalition: formation of
and Durnovo incident
and June offensive
workers’ attitudes towards
second coalition: and Soviet majority
third coalition
workers’ attitudes towards
Putilov, A. I.
Putilov Shipyards
Putilov, Works
In April Days
attitude towards Soviet Congress
economic conflict at
factory committee of
in February Revolution
influence of
internationalism of
and July Days
and Soviet power
during war
Puzyrev Automobile Factory
Rabinowitch, A.
Rabochaya gazeta
on April crisis
on Bolsheviks
on coalition
on economic policy of entrepreneurs
on June 18
on workers’ economic demands
Rabonitsa
Radiotelegraph Factory
Rafes, M.
railroad workers
Rashin, A. G.
Reaction of
Rech’
Rechkin Wagon-construction Factory
Red Guards
Reed, John
resolution of workers’ meetings as
historical source
revolution of
revolutionary defencism
revolutionary democracy
definition of
unity of: workers’ concern for
Rodzyanko, M. N.
Rosenburg, W.
Rozenkrantz Copper Foundry
Rozhdestvenskii District
Russian Renault
Runkaya Univernil’ Factory
Russkaya volya
Runko-Baltiiskii-Wagon-constsuction Factory
Ryabushinskii, P. P.
sailors
court martial of
in April Days
in July Days
Samoilov,F. N.
Schhusselburg Powder Factory
Second City District
see also Admiralty, Kazan’, Kolomna
and Spankii Districts
Sestroretsk Arms Factory
Shapovalov, A.
Shatilova T.
Shchetinin Aircraft Factory
Shkaratan, O. I.
Shlyapnikov, A.
Shotman, A.
Shpigel’Shovel Factory and Rolling MIR
Shul’gin V. V.
Siemens and Gal’ske Electrotechnical Factory
Siemens and Shukkert Electrotechnical Factory
Skalov, S.
skilled workers
nature of work and political culture,
support for soviet power
wages
women
see also, machine construction, printers
Skobelev, M. I.
Skorinko
Skorokhod Shoe Factory
Skrypnik, N. A.
Slutskii, A. I.
Smirnov, A.
Smorodkina, A. F.
social geography
as factor in attitudes
of Petrograd District
Social Revolutionaries (SR)
and appeal to peasants
and June
and July Days
recall of
on Soviet power
support for in suburban districts
see also, Left SRs
Soikin Printing Press
soldiers
and alliance with workers
in April Days
in February Revolution
in July Days
and June offensive
peasant origins of
and post-July repression
see also, revolutionary democracy
Soviet majority see moderate socialists
Soviet power
support for
in February-April, 66,
in April Days
after April crisis
after July
Spasskii District
Spridonova, M.
S-skii
Stalin, J. V.
Stankevich, V. B.
State China Factory
State Council
State Duma
Bolsheviks in
in February Revolution
workers’ attitudes towards
state factories
Petrograd Conference of
unskilled workers in
and ‘worker aristocracy’
workers’ control in
State Printing House, 56
Steklov, Yu. A.
Stepanov, Z. V.
strikes
in 1912-14
during war
in February Days
in April Days
over Durnovo incident
at Putilov Works
after July Days
Strumilin, S.
students
Stukov, N. N.
Sudakov (worker)
Sukhanov, N.
in February Revolution
as memoirist
Suny, R.
Tanyaev, A.
Taylorism
textile industry
textile workers
in April Days
in February Revolution
in July Days
literacy among
nature of work and political culture among
support for SRs among
ties to land among
wages of
see also, women workers
Thornton, P.
Thornton Textile Mills
Tikhanov, A.
Tikhonov, I. A.
Til’mans Factory
Tkach
Tkachenko
tobacco processing workers
Tolmachev, V.
Tomskii, M.
Torgovo-promyshlennaya gazeta
TrekhgornayaTextile Mills
Treugol’nik Rubber Factory
Trotsky, L.
Trubochnyi (Pipe) Factory
Tsarist state
alienation of census society from
and factory administration
workers’ situation under
Tseitlin (worker)
Tseitlin Factory
TsIK (Central Executive Committee)
of Soviets of W and SD
in July Days
and repression of left
and second coalition
and third coalition
workers’ attitudes towards
Tsreteli, I. G.
Tavernin Factory
United Cable Factory
’unloading’ of Petrograd
Unskilled workers
and July Days
in metalworking
militancy on economic issues
nature of work and political culture of
radicalisation of
SR influence among
support for coalition among
wages of
see also women workers
upsurge of 1912-14
Ust’-Izhora Shipyards
Vasilevskii ostrov
Veonnopodkovnyi Factory
Voitinskii, V. S.
Volobuev, P. V.
Volodarski, V.
Voronin Cotton Mills
Vulkan Foundry and Machine-construction Factory
Vyborg District
Bolsheviks in
defencist factories in
duma elections
leadership role of
Red Guards of
Soviet
workers: in April crisis; attitudes towards Soviet majority among;
demand soviet power; discipline and organisation of; and Durnovo incident; in February Revolution; and intelligentsia; in July Days; radical temper of; reaction to July; support for Bolsheviks; wages of; and workers’ control
wages
as demand of February Revolution
differences in: between industries;
within trades
effects of inflation and war upon
a factor in July Days
in state factories
of women workers
war
and changes in labour force
and factory régime
labour movement during
workers’ attitudes towards: before February; after February
War-Industry Committees
"Workers’ Groups’ of
white-collar workers, see employees
Wireless Telephone and Telegraph Factory
women workers
in April Days in February Revolution; literacy among; as proportion of work force; reaction to July; skilled; typical life history of; unskilled
wages of
wartime influx of
see also textile and unskilled workers
woodworkers
Woodworkers’ Union
woodworking industry
‘worker aristocracy’
and support for PG
worker-intelligentsia
workers’ control
in March; in private plants; in state plants; origins; and socialism; and soviet power
see also, factory committees
’Workers’ Groups, see War-Industry committees
workers recently from village
political mentality of
skilled workers’ attitude towards
SR appeal among
working class
honour
internationalism
isolation (from census society) reasons for
unity
Workshops of Baltic Railroad
Workshop of (Nikolaevskii Railroad
Workshops of North-West Railroad
youth worker
Zhivotov (worker)
Zhuk, A.
Zigel’ Foundry and Machine-construction Factory
Zinoviev, G. E.
Znamenskii O. A.
Znamya truda